The M,A.P.
Monkeys and Animals Principal

All Monkeys are necessarily animals, but
Animals are not necessarily monkeys.

Light at the bottom of the garden principal.
Forcing a potentially inappropriate body of knowledge onto an new problem.

"Principal of Simplicity"
In essence, nature always takes the simplest path.

At the turn of this century, there were three phenomena that could not be explained,
(1)Black-Body radiation.
(2)Existance of the Ether (lead to special relativity when it could not be found in the Michelson Morley experiment).
(3)Advance of the perihelion of Mercury (4 arc seconds per century!).

Number 3, was solved by general relativity.

De Broglie equated Einstein's and Plank's work as a foot note to his PhD thesis. This brought about Wave Particle duality!

Davisson & Germer - Electron diffraction (De Broglie)

Bohr used classical mechanics (P.S. circular orbits and L.A.G. in actually using classical mechanics) to postulate,

I=n*Hbar
I=h/2*pi (n=1)
(Angular momentum of electrons orbiting nucleus)

Schr"dinger derived what Bohr postulated using what De Broglie stated.

We try to replace a particle with a wave. To work out what happens to the wave and assumes that is what happens to the particle. Called it Wave mechanics.

How is it worked out?

If it was true in general would it be true in particular! Choose the simplest thing in particular.

BUT! Replace with a free wave i.e. no P.E. only K.E. (plane wave).

Plane wave of vector k travelling along the x direction with a speed v,

psi - a function which describes a wave. It is a wave function.

psi=Aže^i.(kx-vt)
k=2pi/lambda
vžlambda=v

Also, E=hv

To try and get the energy out of psi, Schr"dinger differentiated,

Ðpsi/Ðt=?
psi=A.e^i.theta
Ðpsi/Ðt=Ðpsi/Ðtheta . Ðtheta/Ðt
theta=2pi*(x/lambda-vt)
Ðpsi/Ðtheta=iAe^i.theta
Ðtheta/Ðt=2pi(-v)

Therefore we can say,

Finally,

Hence we get the energy operator,

To get the momentum to agree with the De Broglie relationship, we do the following,

Ðpsi/Ðx=Ðpsi/Ðtheta . Ðtheta/dx
=i.psi . 2pi/lamda
=i.2pi/lambda . psi

So the momentum operator is,

These are derived from classical physics, momentum and energy are operators, not algebraic variables.

In classical physics, quantities are commutative, x.P=P.x . In classical physics the commutator of x and Px is zero.

The commutator of the momentum operator is

In classical mechanics, the Hamiltonian, H is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy.

H=«*mvý+V(x)
=«*(mývý)/m+V(x)
=«*Pý/m+V(x)

To recap,

psi=psi
energy.psi=energy.psi

Using the Hamiltonian on psi gives us "SCHR™DINGER'S TIME DEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION". (This is the general animal),

This is a non-relativistic wave equation. It is always correct. The classical version however is not correct on a relativistic scale.

We know,

H=-hbarý/2m . Ðý/Ðxý + V(x)
=H(x)

Now, using the method of separation of variables (which gives a particular solution, or a monkey),

H(x).psi(x,t)=A(t).psi(x,t)
psi(x,t)=›(x).n(t)
(this is in particular)
H(x).›(x).n(t)=A(t).›(x).n(t)
n(t).H.›=›.A.n
(n/›n).H.›=(›/›n).A.n
(1/›).H.›=(1/n).A.n=constant
(H› is a function of x and An is a function of t)
(1/›).H.›=E

This is SCHR™DINGERS TIME INDEPENDANT EQUATION (a particular monkey!).

We will now apply STIWE to a Hydrogen atom. If we model this as a proton with an electron orbiting at a distance r. Now apply the Hamiltonian,

H= (pý/2m) - eý/r
pý=pxý+pyý+pzý
r=rx+ry+rz

pxý=-hbarý.Ðý/Ðxý
pyý=-hbarý.Ðý/Ðyý
pzý=-hbarý.Ðý/Ðzý

Therefore,
[(-hbarý/2m).(Ðý/Ðxý+Ðý/Ðyý+Ðý/Ðzý)-eý/r] Psi = E Psi

E=-RH/ný
(n=1,2,3...)
RH=Rydberg constant
=(e,hbar,m)

This equation agrees with experimental oservation. For this there is any solution from E=- infinity to E= +infinity. However for most Psi approaches infinity as r approaches infinity. These solutions are rejected by physicists. The solutions which are taken are when Psi approaches 0 as r appoaches infinity.

Ground state of Hydrogen atom, n=1, E=-RH. Mathematicians say that the enrgy has a lower bound. Bohr limits the boundry on electron orbit.

The equation yeilds Psi=exp(-r/ao), ao=constant which Bohr orbit.

If we now use quantum mechanics to solve for a paricle on a string. Recall SHM formulae,

f=-kx
f=m.(Ðýx/Ðtý)
-k.x=m.(Ðýx/Ðtý)
Ðýx/Ðtý=-wý.x
wý=k/m

Now,

F.dx=-dV
F=-dV/dx=-kx
dV/dx=kx
V=«kxý

Now for,

We only keep the solution for Psi->0 as x->infinity. It can be shown that,

E=(n+«).hbar.w=(n+«).h.v
w/2pi=v

Even at absolute zero, all atoms in solids will vibrate. This is seen in the above equation for n=0. This is called the zero point energy. This means that there is no such thing as a universe with no energy.

Now consider a particle of mass m in a potential well of width L, with infinitely high barriers. So, E=0 and E=Infinity. Now solve,

H Psi = E Psi
-(hbarý/2m).(Ðý/Ðxý) Psi = E Psi
Ðý/Ðxý Psi = -a Psi
a=2mE/hbarý

The condition of constructive interference is,

Note,

and from DeBroglie,

E=hý/2m.lambdaý
lambda=2L/n

E=(hý/2m).(ný/4Lý)

=(hý/8mLý).ný
E=nabla.ný
nabla=hý/8mLý

The latter can only be solved for 2 cases. One, for the Hydrogen atom (›=exp{-r/ao} and PsiPsi* gives the probability density) and Two, for atomic oscillators (using SHM, which gives E=(n+«)hv). For the Hydrogen atom, the probability interpretation of th wave function (by the Copenhagen school)

From quantum mechanics,

From classical mechanics,

By the definition of error (partly made by Heisenberg)

(dp)ý=<pý>-<p>ý
(dX)ý=<xý>-<x>ý

Heisenberg showed that,

The correspoding result in classical physics the greater than is ignored and hbar is not present.
So,

dP.dx>=0
then,
dP>=0
dx>=0

This meant that both quantites could be measured symmultaneously with arbitrary accuracy. What Heisenberg showed is that both quantites could not be measured together with no uncertainty. if dP is small then dx is large!

We now apply this to S.H.M.

SHM=KE+PE
E=«mvý+«kxý
E=pýx/2m + «kxý
<E>=(1/2m).<pxý>+«k<xý>

The average of p and x are always zero in SHM.
Hence,

(dp)ý=<pý>
and
(dx)ý=<xý>

So we now write,

Suppose, x=Lo

So we now write,

<E>>=(1/2m).(hbar/2Lo)ý + «kLoý
<E>>=(hbarý/8m).(1/Loý) + «kLoý

Finding the minimum of this gives the lowest value gives,

However,

This is the ZERO POINT ENERGY.

H Psi = E Psi
Integ () {psi*psi.dT} =N
Integ () {(psi*/N^«).(psi/N^«).dT} =1

Now let,
Psi1=Psi/N^«, so that now,
Integ () {psi1*psi1.dT} =1

You can always choose Psi's so that the integral always is equal to one. Without loss of generality we can always choose the eigen functions such that the integral is always one. The function Psi is said to be normalised.

Integ () {›*›.dT} =1
but by analogy
Integ () {›*i . ›j . dT}

Suppose

H › = E ›
(with E unkown)

then,

So,

This is an expectation value or average. This also implies that E is a real number.
So,

E must be equal to E* because E is a real number.
So,

In general,

For any Psi and any › and any operator A, you can always find an operator B such that the equation is valid. B is said to be the hermition cunjugate of A. IFF B=A, A is said to be Hermition. If A is hermition, then,

But is can also can be shown that (by the reason that the energy operator E is a real number),

Integ () {(H›)*›.dT} =Integ () {›*.(H›).dT}
(when ›=Psi)

So, the operator H is hermition. All quantum operators which represent real quantities are (and have to be) hermition.

Now,

H ›i=Ei ›i
H ›j= Ej ›j
Integ () {›*i›j} =0

then,

Integ () {›*i H›j} =Ej Integ () {›*i›j.dT}
Integ () {(H ›i)*.›j.dT} =Ei.Integ () {›i*›j.dT}
Since H is hermition.

But,

H ›i=Ei ›i
Ei Integ () {›*i.›j.dT} =Ej.Integ () {›i*.›j.dT}

Now if we rearrange the above,

But,

Therefore,

›i is orthoganal to ›j.

A strong analogy can be drawn between vector analysis and Quantum mechanics, as it may have already have become apparent.
Here are the analogies in a more explicit presentation,

Integ () {›i*.›i.dT} =1
(The states are normalised)
(where i=1..N)

Integ () {›i*.›j.dT} =0
if i<>j. The states are orthogonal

The latter Quantum mechanical statement is not proven. It is only argued for by analogy, it is one of Quantum mechanics largest assumptions. These analogies lead us to this final statement,

(prove that a real numer is a hermition operator)

pxx-xpx=i-hbar
AB-BA=C (all ops)

put (A-<A>)Psibar=›
put (B-<B>)Psibar=Psi
delta A . delta B >= Im Integ () {›*Psi.dT}

For a complex number,
Z=X+iY
|Im Z|=|Y|=«|Z-Z*|

Now let Z=Integ () {›*Psi.dT}
Z*=Integ () {›.Psi*.dT}

Now,
›=(A-<A>)Psibar
Psi=(B-<B>)Psibar

Integ () {›*Psi.dT} =Integ () {[(A-<A>)Psibar]*[Psi=(B-<B>)Psibar]}
=Integ () {Psi*[A-<A>][B-<B>]Psi}

Now also show that,

But AB-BA=C

If C=ñ-i.hbar
delta A . delta B >=hbar/2

Likewise for energy and time, where E=ihbar.Ð/Ðt

Consider the vector relation,

J is a spatial operator, from vector analysis we can say,

Therefore, the commutators can be written as,

[Jx,Jy]=[y.pz-z.py,z.px-x.pz]
=[y.pz,z.px]+[z.py,x.px]
=-i.Hbar.y.px+i.Hbar.x.py=i.Hbar.Jz

The spatial components of J are cyclicaly related, so we can write the following,

[Jy,Jz]=i.Hbar.Jx
[Jz,Jx]=i.Hbar.Jy

We can readily show that,

Where,

Jý=Jxý+Jyý+Jzý
Jý-Jzý=Jxý+Jyý

Since Jý and Jz commute they have a simultaneous eigen function, Psi(Ji,M) say, where,

Jý Psi(Ji,M)=Hbarý.Ji Psi(Ji,M),
Jz Psi(J,M)=Hbar.M.Psi(J,M) (1)

Consider the eigen function, ›+=J+Psi and ›-=J-Psi (2). Where,

One can readily show that,

Consider,

Jz ›+ = JzJ+ Psi = (J+Jz+Hbar.J+) Psi
(using (4))
= Hbar.(M+1).J+ Psi
(Using (1))
= Hbar.(M+1) ›+

i.e. ›+ is an eigen function of Jz with eigen value (M+1).Hbar. Similarly we can show that ›- is an eigen function of Jz with eigen value (M-1).Hbar. Thus, starting from Psi(Ji,M) we can by successively applying J+ (or J-) keep stepping the eigen value of M up (or down) by one unit, suppose PSI(Ji,Mmax) is the eigen function with the maximum value of Jz. It then follows that J+Psi(Ji,Mmax)=0 and hence that,

0=J-J+Psi(Ji,Mmax)={Jxý+Jyý+i(JxJy-JyJx)} Psi
= {Jý-Jzý-Hbar.Jz} Psi
= {HbarýJi-hbarý.Mmaxý-Hbarý.Mmax} PSI (5)

i.e.
Ji=Mmax(Mmax+1)

(note, Jý commutes with Jñ hence applying the latter leaves eigen value if Jý unchanged. Similarly if ›(Ji,Mmin) is te eigen function with the minimum value of Jz, we have J-›=0 from which we obtain,

Equating the two values of Ji, gives either Mmin=-Mmax or Mmin=Mmax+1. We reject the latter as absurd. Putting J=Max gives Ji=J(J+1). Also starting from max=J and stepping down N times gives Mmin=-J=Mmax-N=J-N. i.e. 2J=N. Therefore J=N/2

The act of measurment always "Disturbs" ("Perturbs") the system being measured. The standard notion used here is Ho for the unperturbed system. A small petubation is switched onto the system, it is represented by V. The hamiltonian for such a system is,

We assume that we have all the solutions to,

Ho|›i>=Ei|›i>
i=0,1,2,...N

This is called Dirac notation. The actual solution we want is,

Which leads us to Second Order Pertubation Theory. We now express the energy of the peturbed system as follows,

Effective Mass Theory
k.p pertubation theory.

k.p is a quantity from pertubation theory that is used in Effective Mass Theory.

When we consider a solid an it's quantum level properties, it is a useful tool to consider an infinite solid, in which there are no boundaries or edges. At a particular point in such a solid we consider the inter atomic spacing to be constant, a say. Any electron in transit from one atom's spacce to another sees the potentials in whether it goes left or right (in a one dimensional system). This is known as cyclic boundary conditions because having identical points going as far as one likes in any direction (left or right) is as if a group of such atoms are linked in a loop.

In digression, if an electron moving from atom to atom sees the same potential, there is an equal probability of find the electron anywhere in the system of atoms, hence we can state,

Expanding this formalism,

Psi (x) = exp(i.theta) . Psi (x+a)
Psi (x) = exp(ikx) . u(x)
Psi (x+a) = exp(ik.(x+a)) . u(x+a)

Therefore,

Psi (x) = Psi (x+a)
u(x) = u(x+a)

This is the form is the Bloch theory (for an infinite solid).

Psi (x) = exp(ikx) . uk(x), where...
... uk(x+a)=uk(x)

Now consider the Hamiltonian of such an electron,

Ho=KE+PE
or
Ho=(pxý/2m)+V(x),
where,
V(x+a)=V(x)

From the above Bloch equations, suppose k=0, then,

Considering the above Bloch equations again, we wish now to get rid of the exp(ikx),

Which gives us,
(((pmý/2m)+V)/Ho).uo=Eouo (x)

Therefore,

Where V is the pertubation energy, in full, Vper(x+a)=Vper(x).

If we consider the previous equation,

Which leads to, a.kxý. So we then write,

Eo=Eo+(hbarý.kxý/2m)+a.kxý
=Eo+kxý.((hbarý/2m)+a)
=Eo+kxý.(hbarý/2m*)

Where,
hbarý/2m*=(hbarý/2m)+a

m* is not actually the real mass or an altered mass, it is simply a mathematical factor giving an effective mass of th electron.

The energy can also be expressed as a polinomial in kx.

E=Eo+akxý+bkxü+ckx4
=Eo+(hbarý.kxý/2m*)

So,

Hence, m* is energy dependant, and non-parabolic effects are noted.

End of course
bye bye !
:-)